Actaea racemosa
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| Actaea racemosa | ||||||||||||||
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| Actaea racemosa (Nutt.) L. |
Actaea racemosa (black cohosh, black bugbane or black snakeroot or fairy candle; syn. Cimicifuga racemosa) is a member of the family Ranunculaceae, native to eastern North America from the extreme south of Ontario south to central Georgia, and west to Missouri and Arkansas. It grows in a variety of woodland situations, and is often found in small woodland openings.
It is a glabrous herbaceous perennial plant, producing large, compound leaves from an underground rhizome, growing 0.25-0.6 m (7-18 in) tall. The basal leaves are up to 1 m (39 in) long and broad, tripinnately compound, the leaflets with a coarsely toothed margin. The flowers are produced in late spring and early summer on a tall stem, 0.75-2.5 m (2½–8 ft) tall, in racemes up to 50 cm (20 in) long; they have no petals or sepals, only a tight cluster of 55-110 white stamens 5-10 mm long surrounding the white stigma. The flowers have a distinctly sweet smell. The fruit is a dry follicle 5-10 mm long containing several seeds.
The species has a history of taxonomic uncertainty dating back to Carl Linnaeus who, after some earlier revisions, had eventually placed it into the genus, Actaea, based on morphological characteristics of the inflorescence and seeds. This designation was later revised by Thomas Nuttall reclassifying the species to the genus, Cimicifuga, based solely on the dry follicles produced by black cohosh that are typical of species in Cimicifuga.[1] However, recent additional data from morphological and gene phylogeny analyses demonstrate that black cohosh is more closely related to species of the genus Actaea than to other Cimicifuga species, prompting the revision to Actaea racemosa as originally proposed by Linnaeus.[1] Blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides), despite its similar common name, is a plant of another genus.
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[edit] Herbal use
Black cohosh has been included in herbal compounds or dietary supplements marketed to women as remedies for the symptoms of premenstrual tension, menopause and other gynecological problems. However, its usage for treating these ailments is controversial, with a recent study conducted with a large group of participants and a range of black cohosh formulations casting doubt on its efficacy, since biological effects of some black cohosh preparations were not performing better than placebo. [2] Study design and dosage of black cohosh preparations play a role in clinical outcome,[3] and recent investigations with pure compounds found in black cohosh have identified some beneficial effects of these compounds on physiological pathways underlying age-related disorders like osteoporosis.[4]
Because of some physiological effects of black cohosh extracts, it was originally thought these extracts contained estrogen-like compounds. Recent research, however, suggests that these biological effects may in part be due to binding activities to serotonin receptors, [5] and a derivative of serotonin with high affinity for binding to serotonin receptors has been identified in black cohosh. [6] Native Americans used black cohosh to treat gynecological and other disorders, including sore throats, kidney problems, and depression. Black cohosh has also been used as an abortifacient (see side effects).
Like most plants, black cohosh contains a very large number of organic compounds with biological activity. [3] Complex biological molecules, such as triterpene glycosides (e.g. cycloartanes), have been shown to reduce cytokine-induced bone loss (osteoporosis) by blocking osteoclastogenesis in in vitro and in vivo models, [4] suggesting that application of black cohosh-produced compounds may aid treatments of this common ailment in humans.
[edit] Side effects
Studies carried out with human subjects who were administered two commercially available black cohosh preparations, did not detect estrogenic effects on the breast,[7] suggesting absence of estrogenic activity in pure black cohosh-based formulations as a cause of side effects.
Black cohosh produces endometrial stimulation.[citation needed] Since black cohosh increases blood flow to the pelvic area, its use is not recommended during menses as it may increase or prolong bleeding.[citation needed] It should be used with caution after usage for six months.[8] Additionally, black cohosh contains tannins, which may inhibit iron absorption.[9]
No studies have been published on long-term safety in humans.[10] However some studies have suggested that long-term use may promote metastasis of cancer tissue. Using transgenic mice as a model, researchers found that black cohosh did not increase incidence of primary breast cancer, but that it increased metastasis of pre-existing breast cancer to the lungs. [11].
Liver damage has been reported in a few individuals using black cohosh, but large numbers of women have taken the herb without reporting adverse health effects.[12] While studies of black cohosh have not proven that the herb causes liver damage, Australia has added a warning to the label of all products containing black cohosh, stating that it may cause harm to the liver of some individuals and should not be used without medical supervision.[13]
Reported direct side-effects also include dizziness, headaches, and seizures; diarrhea; nausea and vomiting; sweating; constipation; low blood pressure and slow heartbeats; and weight problems.[14]
[edit] Garden use
Actaea racemosa grows in dependably moist, fairly heavy soil. It bears tall tapering racemes of white midsummer flowers on wiry black-purple stems, whose mildly unpleasant, medicinal smell at close range gives it the common name "Bugbane." The drying seed heads stay handsome in the garden for many weeks. Its deeply cut leaves, burgundy colored in the variety atropurpurea, add interest to American gardens, wherever summer heat and drought do not make it die back, which make it a popular garden perennial.
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
- Black cohosh benefits, treatment methods, side effects, and other details
- National Institutes of Health (NIH) "Workshop on the Safety of Black Cohosh in Clinical Studies" November 2004 .pdf
[edit] References
- ^ a b Compton JA, Culham A, Jury SL (1998). "Reclassification of Actaea to include Cimicifuga and Souliea (Ranunculaceae): Phylogeny inferred from morphology, nrDNA ITS, and epDNA trnL-F sequence variation". Taxon 47: :593-634. http://www.jstor.org/pss/1223580.
- ^ Newton KM, Reed SD, LaCroix AZ, Grothaus LC, Ehrlich K, Guiltinan J (2006). "Treatment of vasomotor symptoms of menopause with black cohosh, multibotanicals, soy, hormone therapy, or placebo: a randomized trial". Ann Intern Med. 145: 869-879. PMID 17179056. http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/full/145/12/869.
- ^ a b Viereck V, Emons G, Wuttke W (2005). "Black cohosh: just another phytoestrogen?". Trends Endocrinol Metab. 16: 214–221. doi:. PMID 15927480.
- ^ a b Qiu SX, Dan C, Ding LS, Peng S, Chen SN, Farnsworth NR, Nolta J, Gross ML, Zhou P (2007). "A triterpene glycoside from black cohosh that inhibits osteoclastogenesis by modulating RANKL and TNFalpha signaling pathways". Chemistry & Biology 14: :860–869. doi:. PMID 17656322.
- ^ Burdette JE, Liu J, Chen SN, Fabricant DS, Piersen CE, Barker EL, Pezzuto JM, Mesecar A, Van Breemen RB, Farnsworth NR, Bolton JL (2003). "Black cohosh acts as a mixed competitive ligand and partial agonist of the serotonin receptor". J Agric Food Chem 51: 5661-5670. doi:. PMID 12952416.
- ^ Powell SL, Gödecke T, Nikolic D, Chen SN, Ahn S, Dietz B, Farnsworth NR, van Breemen RB, Lankin DC, Pauli GF, Bolton JL (2008). "In vitro serotonergic activity of black cohosh and identification of N(omega)-methylserotonin as a potential active constituent". J Agric Food Chem 56: 11718-11726. doi:. PMID 19049296.
- ^ Ruhlen RL, Haubner J, Tracy JK, Zhu W, Ehya H, Lamberson WR, Rottinghaus GE, Sauter ER (2007). "Black cohosh does not exert an estrogenic effect on the breast". Nutr Cancer 59: :269-277. PMID 18001221.
- ^ The Complete German commission E Monographs recommends a use duration of not longer than 6 months.
- ^ http://www.fammed.ouhsc.edu/ocfmr/journal/Herbal/herbal.htm | 1°Care Exchange -- A Reader-Directed Journal from the Oklahoma Center for Family Medicine Research / Volume 1, Number 1 January 1999.
- ^ Questions and Answers About Black Cohosh and the Symptoms of Menopause | url=http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/BlackCohosh.asp
- ^ Davis VL, Jayo MJ, Ho A, Kotlarczyk MP, Hardy ML, Foster WG, Hughes CL (2008). "Black cohosh increases metastatic mammary cancer in transgenic mice expressing c-erbB2". Cancer Res 68: :8377-8383. PMID 18922910.
- ^ Workshop on the Safety of Black Cohosh in Clinical Studies | url=http://nccam.nih.gov/news/pastmeetings/blackcohosh_mtngsumm.pdf#summary
- ^ Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration alert | url=http://www.tga.gov.au/cm/blkcohosh.htm
- ^ http://www.intellihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSSAN283/8513/31402/346466.html?d=dmtContent | Black Cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa)
