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Central Morocco Tamazight

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This article is about the Berber dialect of Central Morocco called Tamazight exclusively. For other uses of the word "Tamazight", see Berber language.
Central Morocco Tamazight
ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ tamaziɣt
Spoken in  Morocco,
much fewer in:
 Algeria
 France[1]
Region Central Morocco - Middle Atlas
Total speakers Between 4 and 5 million [2]
3,150,000[1]
Ranking 34 (rank of Berber languages as a whole)
Language family Afro-Asiatic
Writing system Latin, Tifinagh, Arabic
Language codes
ISO 639-1 None
ISO 639-2 ber
ISO 639-3 tzm
Distribution of Central Morocco Tamazight
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode.
For a correct Tifinagh font display, please install this IRCAM font.

Central Morocco Tamazight (Central Atlas Tamazight, Tamazight, Braber, native name: ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ tamaziɣt) is a dialect of the Berber language[nb 1] spoken by approximately 3 to 5 million people, mostly in Central Morocco but also in Algeria and France.[1][2] It is among the four most-spoken Berber languages (the other three being Kabyle, Tashelhiyt, and Tarifit),[3][4] and rivals Tashelhiyt as the most-spoken Berber language in Morocco.[5][6][7]

Central Morocco Tamazight belongs to the Atlas subgroup of the Northern Berber language family, and is situated in the middle of a dialect continuum between Tarifit and Tashelhiyt.[2] Among its distinguishing features is the exclusive use of the endonym Tamaziɣt for the language and Amaziɣ (plural Imazɣen) for its speakers.[2]

Tamazight is an Afro-Asiatic language, related genetically to the Semitic languages, the Egyptian language, and the Chadic languages, among others. Along with most other members of this family, it has a two-gender system, VSO typology, emphatic consonants (realized in Tamazight as velarized), and a templatic morphology.

While Berber languages are used in Morocco for some broadcasts and educational materials in development,[8] it does not have official status. It is banned from courts[9] and is not found on signs or buildings[10]. However, King Mohammed VI declared it to be part of the national heritage,[11] and its use is regulated by the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture.

Contents

[edit] Nomenclature

Central Morocco Tamazight is the only Berber language to be called Tamazight (literally, 'language') by speakers (as opposed to Tarifit or Tashelhiyt). Tamazight speakers use the endonymic ethnonym Amazigh (plural: Imazghen).[2][12]) to refer to their language regularly and exclusively, it is also used along with more common local names by other Berber groups.[2] The language was also traditionally termed "Braber" in dialectal Arabic, a term often found in older studies.[2]

[edit] Classification

Tamazight is an Afro-Asiatic language, related genetically to a number of languages in North Africa and Southwest Asia, including the Semitic languages, the Egyptian language, and the Chadic languages, among others. Along with most other members of this family, it has a two-gender system, VSO typology, emphatic consonants (realized in Tamazight as velarized), and a templatic morphology. It also contains a causative morpheme /s/, which is found in all Afro-Asiatic subfamilies along with other macrofamilies, including the Niger-Congo languages.

Central Morocco Tamazight belongs to the Atlas subgroup of the Northern Berber language family. It belongs to the class of Berber languages in which the phonemes that were originally plosives have shifted into fricatives, contrasting with a group where they have remained plosives and one where they have become affricates.[13]

Tamazight is in the middle of a dialect continuum from Tarifit in the north-east to Tashelhiyt in the south-west, and the transition between the two and Tamazight is smooth.[2] The basic lexicon of Tamazight differs markedly from Tashelhiyt, and its verbal system is more similar to Tarifit or Kabyle.[2] However, some[who?] argue that Central Morocco Tamazight should be considered a dialect of Tashelhiyt.

[edit] Dialects

Tamazight has a relatively large amount of internal diversity (greater than that in Tashelhiyt[14]). Its dialects are divided up into three geographic groups: Middle Atlas, High Atlas, and Djebel Sargho and its foothills.[2] Spirantization of /t/ > [θ] or [h], /d/ > [ð], /k/ > [ʃ], and /g/ > [ʃ] or [j] is found in many Middle Atlas dialects but is rarer in High Atlas dialect and is absent in those of Djebel Sargho.[2]

Ayt Ayache and Ayt Seghrouchen are two mutually intelligible dialects of Tamazight (Ayt Seghrouchen being a much larger tribe).[15] South Oran is another dialect.[1] Other groups speaking Tamazight include: Beni Ouarain, Ait Morghi, Ait Alaham, Ait Youb, Marmoucha, Ait Youssi, Beni Mguild, Zaiane, Zemmour, Ait Rbaa, Ait Seri, Beni Mtir, Guerouane, Ait Segougou, Ait Morghad, Ait Hadiddou, Ait Izdeg, Ait Sikhmane, and Ait Atta.[16] (/ajt~/ literally means "children of ~".[17])According to some[who?] Tamazight should be grouped with Tashelhiyt.

[edit] Geographic Distribution

Morocco - Ethnolinguistic Groups in 1973

Central Morocco Tamazight is mostly spoken in the entire Middle Atlas and its outcroppings, and the central and eastern High Atlas mountains, largely in Morocco but also in Algeria.[1][2] It is thus spoken across areas with widely varying ecological conditions - from the mountainous and forested regions of the Middle Atlas mountains to the Eastern Sahara (Tifilalet).[2]

Berber in Morocco is spread into three areas: Tarifit in the north, Tamazight in the center, and Tashelhiyt in the south/southwest.[18] However transitional varieties exist between these dialects, creating a smooth transition.[19] Tamazight is spoken by about 43% of Morocco's Berber-speakers, while Tashelhiyt commands 32% and Tarifit 25%.[5] However figures for the number of speakers of Berber languages are generally a matter of estimates rather than linguistic censuses.[20][21]

In Algeria Berber speakers are focused in the Kabylie, M'zab, and Aure.[22] Central Morocco Tamazight is spoken in the Atlas mountains in western Algeria, in valleys next to Taza, near Rabat, and close to the Moroccan border in the south.[1]

[edit] Status

In the 1930s the French created separate laws for Arabs and Berbers, which sparked Arab nationalism.[23] After independence, all the Maghreb countries to varying degrees pursued a policy of Arabization, aimed primarily at displacing French from its colonial position as the dominant language of education and literacy, but under these policies the use of Berber languages was suppressed or even banned.

In both Morocco and Algeria Berber languages have low status, being used mainly in the home, and are not official languages of the state.[24] However broadcasts, music, and newspapers are available.[25] 40% of Central Morocco Tamazight speakers, mostly older people, are monolingual while the others use Arabic as a second language.[1] The majority of Berbers in Morocco are poor, though there is a class of rich Berbers who have even created neighborhoods in Casablanca.[9] Tamazight speakers reportedly have a lower birth rate than the country of Morocco as a whole.[26]

Tamazight along with its relative Tashelhiyt are undergoing "contraction" as rural families move to cities and stop speaking Tamazight.[27] However Tamazight speakers are reported to immigrate less than many other Berber groups.[26]

[edit] Official status

Morocco

The IRCAM (Institut Royal de la Culture Amazighe) in Rabat

There are multiple political parties and cultural associations in Morocco that advocate for the advancement of Berber, calling for it to be recognized as an official language, used in the mass media, and taught in schools.[28] Since 1994 the situation has improved: King Hassan II declared that a national Berber dialect would acquire a formal status; television broadcasts are summarized in three Berber languages (Tamazight, Tashelhiyt, and Tarifit), and educational materials for schools have begun development.[29][30] Tamazight was also declared to be part of the national heritage of Morocco.[31] However, Berber names are not permitted in Morocco, since names may only be chosen from a list of known names, most of which are Arab.[32][33] Berber is banned in courts, and monolingual Berber speakers are barred from government jobs.[9]

On October 17, 2001 King Mohammed VI sealed the decree (Dahir 1-01-299) creating and organizing the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture (IRCAM).[34][35] IRCAM's board is composed of Amazigh experts, artists, and activists, all of whom are appointed by the king.[36]

Algeria

Tamazight (referring to Berber languages in general rather than Central Moroccan Tamazight specifically) has recently been recognized as a national language[37] (but not official language[38]) of Algeria. In 2007 Algeria's Government Council also approved the creation of the Academy of the Tamazight Language and of the Higher Council of the Tamazight Language, which control standardization of Tamazight and political integration of the language, respectively.[38]

[edit] Orthography

Tamaziɣt in Tifinagh
Bilingual stop sign in Morocco
Arabic: qif
Berber: bedd

Originally Tamazight, along with most other Berber languages, was exclusively unwritten.[39] As of now there are currently three writing systems: Tifinagh, the Latin alphabet and the Arabic script.[36]

Tifinagh

Tifinagh is the official writing system for Tamazight in Morocco,[40] promulgated by a Dahir of King Mohammed VI, based on the recommendation of IRCAM.[36] It has been used to teach children Tamazight in Moroccan schools since September 2003,[41] but is not found on public signs or buildings in Morocco.[42] (Following the Tifinagh Dahir road signs were installed in the Riffian city of Nador in Arabic and Tinifagh -- these were removed by security forces in the middle of the night soon after.[36]) It is preferred by young people as a symbol of identity and has popular support.[36][42]

Latin

The Latin script has been preferred among Amazigh linguists and researchers, and also has a great deal of established writing.[36] It is backed by the Amazigh elite, but is vehemently opposed by the Moroccan pro-Arab establishment.[36]

Arabic

The Arabic script is the predominant orthography for Berber literature in Morocco.[43] However, few Amazigh activists still use Arabic script - it faces general opposition, rooted in North African governments' pan-Arabism.[36]

[edit] Phonology

[edit] Consonants

Tamazight has a contrastive set of "flat" consonants, manifested in two ways:

  • For front segments, velarization: /tˠ dˠ sˠ zˠ lˠ nˠ ɾˠ/)
  • For back segments, labialization: /gʷ kʷ qʷ xʷ ɣʷ/)

In addition Tamazight has uvular and pharyngeal consonants, as well as a conspicuous lack of /p/ in its plosive inventory.[nb 2] The lateral fricative [ɬ] occurs in the Ayt Seghrouchen dialect as an allophone of the sequence /lt/.[44]

All segments may be geminated except for the pharyngeals /ʕ ħ/.

In the table below, when consonants appear in pairs, the one on the left is voiceless.

IPA chart Tamazight consonants (AA and AS)[45]
Labial Dental/
Alveolar		 Post-
alveolar/
Palatal		 Velar Uvular Pharyn-
geal4		 Glottal4
Post-palatal Back
plain flat plain1 flat2 plain flat plain flat2
Nasal m n nˠ                  
Plosive   b6 t7 d tˠ dˠ     k ɡ                         q     qʷ                
Fricative f s z sˠ zˠ ʃ ʒ kʷ gʷ x ɣ xʷ3 ɣʷ3 ħ ʕ h
Approximant j w
Lateral (ɬ)5 l lˠ
Flap   ɾ ɾˠ                  

Phonetic notes:

  1. pronounced as fricatives in Ayt Ayache and stops in Ayt Seghrouchen
  2. only occur in Ayt Ayache
  3. rare—native speakers can freely substitute /x ɣ/
  4. mainly in Arabic borrowings
  5. in Ayt Seghrouchen, realization of the sequence /-lt-/ for some speakers, e.g. ultma 'sister', altu 'not yet'
  6. For a small number of speakers, /b/ is sometimes lenited to [β].[46]
  7. /t/ is aspirated [tʰ].[47]
Example words
Phoneme Example Gloss Phoneme Example Gloss Phoneme Example Gloss
/m/ /ma/ 'what?' /n/ /ini/ 'say!' /b/ /bab/ 'owner'
/t/ /isalt/ 'he asked him' /d/ /da/ 'here' /tˠ/ /tˠalˠb/ 'to demand'
/dtˠ/ /dtˠmn/ 'to guarantee' /k/ /ks/ 'to tend sheep' /g/ /iga/ 'he did'
/kʷ/ /kʷulː/ 'all' /gʷ/ /agʷːa/ 'a burden' /q/ /iqɾˠːa/ 'he confessed'
/qʷ/ /iqʷmːɾˠ/ 'he gambled' /f/ /fa/ 'to yawn' /s/ /sus/ 'to shake off'
/z/ /zːɾ/ 'to pluck' /sˠ/ /sˠbɾˠ/ 'to be patient' /zˠ/ /zˠdˠ/ 'to weave'
/ʃ/ /ʃal/ 'to buy grain' /ʒ/ /ʒhd/ 'to be strong' /x/ /xulf/ 'to be different'
/ɣ/ /ɣal/ 'to think' /xʷ/ /axʷmːas/ 'share-cropper' /ɣʷ/ /ɣʷzif/ 'tall'
/ħ/ /ħml/ 'to flood' /ʕ/ /ʕbd/ 'to adore, worship' /h/ /ha/ 'here is, are'
/j/ /jːih/ 'yes' /w/ /waxːa/ 'all right' /l/ /la/ 'no'
/lˠ/ /lˠazˠ/ 'hunger' /ɾ/ /ɾdm/ 'to demolish' /ɾˠ/ /ɾˠdˠu/ 'to bless'

[edit] Vowels

Tamazight has a typical phonemic three-vowel system, similarly to Classical Arabic:

Tamazight vowel phonemes[48]
Front Central Back
Close ⵉ i ⵓ u
Open ⴰ a

These phonemes have numerous allophones, conditioned by the following environments:

(# denotes word boundary, X denotes C[-flat -/x/ -/ɣ/], C̣ denotes C[+flat], G denotes C̣, /x/, and /ɣ/)

Tamazight vowel allophony[49]
Phoneme Realization Environment Example Gloss
/i/ [i] #_X /ili/ 'to exist'
[ɨ] #_Xː / Xː_ /idːa/ 'he went'
[ɪ] [e] _G / G_ /dˠːiqs/ 'to burst out'
[ɪj] X_# /isːfɾˠħi/ 'he made me happy'
/u/ [u] #_X / X(ː)_X /umsɣ/ 'I painted'
[ʊ] [o] _G / G_ /idˠuɾˠ/ 'he turned'
[ʊw] X(ː)_# /bdu/ 'to begin'
[ʉ]1 kː_ / gː_ /lːajgːuɾ/ 'he goes'
/a/ [æ] #_X(ː) / X(ː)_X /azn/ 'to send'
[ɐ] X(ː)_# /da/ 'here'
[ɑ] _C̣ / C̣_ /ħadˠɾ/ 'to be present'
  1. only in Ayt Seghrouchen

Phonetic Schwa

There is a predictable non-phonemic vowel inserted into consonant clusters, realized as [ɪ̈] before front consonants (e.g. /b t d .../) and [ə] before back consonants (e.g. /k x .../).[50] It is voiced before voiced consonants and voiceless before voiceless consonants.[51] It is represented as <ⴻ> or <e> orthographically.

These are the rules governing the occurrence of [ə]:

(# denotes word boundary, L denotes /l r m n/, H denotes /h ħ ʕ w j/)

Tamazight schwa epenthesis[52]
Environment Realization Example Pronunciation Gloss
#C(ː)# əC(ː) /g/ [əg] 'to be, to do'
#C[-L]C# CəC /tˠsˠ/ [tˠəsˠ] 'to laugh'
#LC# əLC or LəC /ns/ [əns] ~ [nəs] 'to spend the night'
#CːC# əCːəC /fːɾ/ [əfːəɾ] 'to hide'
#CCC# CCəC / C1C2 are not {L H} /xdm/ [xdəm] 'to work'
/zʕf/ [zʕəf] 'to get mad'
#CCC# əCCəC or #CəCəC# / {C1 C3} is {L H} /hdm/ [əhdəm] ~ [hədəm] 'to demolish'
#CCC# CəCəC / C2C3 = {L H} /dˠmn/ [dˠəmən] 'to guarantee'

Examples:

  • /tbɾˠːmnt/ > [tbərːəmənt] ('you (fp) turned')
  • /datːħadˠar/ > [datːəħadˠar] ('she is present')
  • /ʕadˠːɾˠ/ > [ʕadˠːəɾˠ] ('to meet')

Tamazight in fact has numerous words without phonemic vowels, and those consisting entirely of voiceless consonants will not phonetically contain voiced vowels.[nb 3]

[edit] Stress

Word stress is non-contrastive and predictable - it falls on the last vowel in a word (including schwa).[53]

Examples:

  • /sal/ > [ˈsal] ('to ask')
  • /dajtːħadˠaɾˠ/ > [dajtːəħaˈdˠaɾˠ] ('he is present')
  • /fsːɾ/ > [fəsːˈəɾ] ('to explain')
  • /tfsːɾnt/ > [təfəsːəˈɾənt] ('you (fp) explained')

[edit] Grammar

Main article: Central Morocco Tamazight grammar

Central Morocco Tamazight grammar has many features typical of Afro-Asiatic languages, including extensive apophony in both the derivational and inflectional morphology, gender, possessive suffixes, VSO typology, the causative morpheme /s/, and use of the status constructus.

[edit] Nouns

Tamazight nouns are inflected for gender, number, and state. Normally plurals end in /-n/, singular masculines have the prefix /a-/[nb 4] and plurals /i-/, and feminines have the circumfix /t(a)...t(ː) in singular and /t(i)...(in/t) in plural.[54]

Plurals may either involve a regular change ("sound plurals"), internal vowel change ("broken plurals"), or a combination of the two.[55] Some plurals are mixed, e.g. /tafust/ ('hand') /tifusin/ ('hands').[56]

Native masculine singular nouns usually start with /a(m)-/ in singular and /i-/ in plural, and "sound plurals" (as opposed to "broken plurals" which also take the suffix /-n/ in plural.[57] Native feminine usually are surrounded by /t...(t)/ (or /m...t/) in the singular. "Sound" plurals usually take /t(i/u)...n/ and "Broken" plurals /ti-/.[58]

Nouns may be put into the construct state (contrasting with free state) to indicate possession, or when the subject of a verb follows the verb. This is also used for nouns following numerals and some prepositions (note that /ɣɾ/, 'to', only requires this for feminine nouns), as well as the word /d-/ ('and').[59] The construct state is formed as follows: in masculines, initial /a/ becomes /u, wː, wa/, initial /i/ becomes /i, j, ji/, and initial /u/ becomes /wu/. In feminines, initial /ta/ becomes /t/ or rarely /ta/, initial /ti/ becomes /t/ or rarely /ti/, and initial /tu/ becomes /tu/.[60]

Examples (in Ayt Ayache):[61]

/babuxam/ (< /axam/) 'head of the house'
/ijːs ntslit/ (< /tislit/) 'the horse of the bride'

Tamazight content words may be either nouns or verbs.[62] As such, nouns may be either noun-substantives or noun-adjectives. [63] Adjectives come after the nouns they modify.[64]

[edit] Pronouns

Central Morocco Tamazight's pronouns distinguish three persons, and two genders[nb 5] Pronouns appear in three forms: an independant form used in the subject position, a possessive suffix (and a derived independent possessive pronoun), and an object form affixed[nb 6] to the controlling verb. Ayt Seghrouchen also has a distinct set of affixed pronouns for indirect objects. /ntːat/ 'she' has the following forms in subject, possessive, object, and indirect object form:

/ntːat/ - /-n(ː)s/[nb 7] - /as/ - /tː/[65]

Demonstrative pronouns distinguish between proximate and remote. When they occur independently, they also inflect for number. They may also be suffixed to nouns, e.g. /tabardaja/ 'this pack-saddle'.[66]

[edit] Verbs

Tamazight subject affixes[67]
Person (AA) (AS)
s 1 /...-ɣ/ /...-x/
2 /t-...-d/ /t-...-t/
3 m /i-.../
f /t-.../
pl 1 /n-.../
2 m /t-...-m/
f /t-...-nt/
3 m /...-n/
f /...-nt/


Central Morocco Tamazight verbs are heavily inflected, being marked for tense, aspect, mode, voice, person, and polarity. Tamazight verbs have at their core a stem, modified by prefixes, suffixes, moveable affixes, circumfixes, and ablaut. The prefixes indicate voice, tense, aspect, and polarity, while the suffixes indicate mood (normal, horatory, or imperative). Subject markers are circumfixed to the verb, while object marking and satellite framing are accomplished via either prefixing or suffixing depending on environment[68] Some verb forms are accompanied by ablaut, and sometimes metathesis.[69]

Central Atlas Tamazight uses a bipartate negative construction (e.g. /uriffiɣ ʃa/ 'he didn't go out') which apparently was modeled after proximate Arabic varieties, in a common development known as Jespersen's Cycle.[70] It is present in multiple Berber varieties, and is argued to have originated in neighboring Arabic and been adopted by contact.[71]

Pronominal complement markers cliticize to the verb, with the indirect object preceding the direct object, e.g. /izn-as-t/ "he sold it to him".[72]

Tamazight has a null copula.[62] The words /g/ /iʒ/ 'to be, to do' may function as a copula in Ayt Ayache and Ayt Seghrouchen respectively, especially in structures preceded by /aj/ 'who, which, what'.[73]

[edit] Particles

Prepositions include /xf/ ('on'), /qbl/ ('before'), /ɣɾ/ ('to'), /n/ ('with'), and /g/ ('until'). These may take pronominal suffixes. Some prepositions require the following noun to be in the construct state, while others don't.

/n/ encliticizes onto the following word (which is put into construct state), and assimilates to some initial consonants: it becomes /l/ before a noun with initial /l/, /w/ before initial /a/, and /j/ before initial /i/ (note that this creates geminates rather than doubled phonemes, e.g. /ʃa lːħlib/ 'some milk').[74]

The conjunction /d/ 'and' requires construct state, and also assimilates to a following /t/, e.g. /aɣjul tːfunast/ 'the donkey and the cow'.[75]

[edit] Numerals

The first few (1-3 in Ayt Ayache, 1-2 in Ayt Seghrouchen) cardinal numerals have native Berber and borrowed Arabic forms.[nb 8] All higher cardinals are borrowed from Arabic, consistent with the linguistic universals that the numbers 1-3 are much more likely to be retained, and that a borrowed number generally implies that numbers greater than it are also borrowed. The retention of one is also motivated by the fact that Berber languages near-universally use unity as a determiner.[76]

Cardinal numbers precede the noun they modify, generally connected by the preposition /n/.[77]

[edit] Syntax

Word order is usually VSO (with the subject in construct state) but sometimes is SVO (with the subject in free state), e.g. (/ifːɣ umaziɣ/ vs. /amaziɣ ifːɣ/ 'the Berber went out').[78] Tamazight also exhibits pro-drop behavior. [79]

wh- questions are always clefts, and multiple wh-questions[nb 9] are not found.[80] This means that Tamazight Tamazight's clefting, relativisation, and wh-interrogation cause anti-agreement effects,[nb 10] similarly to Shilha.[81] causing deletion of the verbal person marker in certain situations.[82]

[edit] Examples

English Tamazight
(Ayt Ayache)[83] (Ayt Segrouchen)[84]
Hello /sːalamuʕlikːum/ (to a man by a man)
/ʕlikːumsːalam/ (response)
/lˠːahiʕawn/ (to or by a woman)
/lˠːajslːm/ (response)
Good morning /sˠbaħ lxiɾˠ/
Good evening /mslxiɾˠ/
Good night /ns jlman/ (to m.s. or f.s.)
/mun dlman/ (response)
 /ns jlman/ (to m.s. or f.s.)
/tmunt dlman/~/tmunt dsːlant/ (response)
/nsat jlman/ (to m.p.)
/tmunm dlman/ (response)
 /nsm jlman/ (to m.p.)
/tmunm dlman/~/tmunm dsːlant/ (response)
/nsint jlman/ (to f.p.)
/tmunt dlman/ (response)
 /nsnt jlman/ (to f.p.)
/tmunːt dlman/~/tmunːt dsːlant/ (response)
Goodbye

/lˠːajhnːikː/ (to m.s.)
/lˠːajhnːikːm/ (to f.s.)
/lˠːajhnːikːn/ (to m.p.)
/lˠːajhnːikːnt/ (to f.p.)

/tamanilːah/ (response)

/lˠːajhnːikː/~/bsːlama/ (to m.s.)
/lˠːajhnːiʃm/ (to f.s.)
/lˠːajhnːiʃun/ (to m.p.)
/lˠːajhnːiʃunt/ (to f.p.)

/amanlːah/ (response)

Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⴽⴽⴻⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵍⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵢⴻⵏ ⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴷⵉ ⵍⵃⵡⴻⵕⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵣⴻⵔⴼⴰⵏ-ⵖⵓⵔ ⵙⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴽⵡⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵇⵓⴻⵍ ⵓ ⵢⴻⵙⵙⴻⴼⴽ ⴰⴷ-ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴻⴳⵎⴰⵜⵜ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴻⵏ.[85]

Imdanen, akken ma llan ttlalen d ilelliyen msawan di lḥ weṛma d yizerfan- ghur sen tamsakwit d lâquel u yessefk ad-tili tegmatt gar asen.[86]

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Alternatively Central Morocco Tamazight is a language in the Berber language family. As Berber languages have a high degree of mutual intelligibility, there is little consensus on what is considered a "language" and what a "dialect".
  2. ^ [p] is missing from about 10% of languages that have a [b]. (See voiced velar plosive for another such gap.) This is an areal feature of the "circum-Saharan zone" (Africa north of the equator, including the Arabian peninsula). It is not known how old this areal feature is, and whether it might be a recent phenomenon due to Arabic as a prestige language (Arabic lost its /p/ in prehistoric times), or whether Arabic was itself affected by a more ancient areal pattern. It is found in other areas as well; for example, in Europe, Proto-Celtic and Old Basque are both reconstructed as having [b] but no [p]. Nonetheless, the [p] sound is very common cross-linguistically.
  3. ^ Audio recordings of selected words without vowels in Tashelhiyt can be downloaded from [1].
  4. ^ Often dropped in Ayt Seghrouchen, see Abdel-Massih (1971b:126)
  5. ^ In second and third person. Ayt Seghrouchen also distinguishes gender in the first person plural subject pronoun, see Abdel-Massih (1971b:35-40, 46, 77-80)
  6. ^ prefixed or suffixed depending on multiple factors
  7. ^ /-ns/ in Ayt Ayache, /-nːs/ in Ayt Seghrouchen
  8. ^ The Arabic numerals are only used for counting in order and for production of higher numbers when combined with the tens, seeAbdel-Massih (1971b:22)
  9. ^ such as the English "who saw what?", see The typology of multiple wh-questions and language variationPDF (155 KB), pp. 174-175.
  10. ^ when the verb doesn't agree with or agrees in a special way with wh-words, see THE SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCT AND INDEPENDENT ORDERS IN WAMPANOAGPDF (504 KB), p. 18.

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Central Morocco Tamazight at Ethnologue
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m (French) INALCO report on Central Morocco Tamazight: maps, extension, dialectology, name
  3. ^ Berber
  4. ^ El Aissati (1993:5-6)
  5. ^ a b Ethnologue report for Morocco
  6. ^ Ross (2004:20)
  7. ^ Dossier no. 14 – The Amazigh language within Morocco’s language policy - 1.3 The distribution of speakers in the territory
  8. ^ van Heelsum (2002:9)
  9. ^ a b c SFGate: Morocco's Berbers Battle to Keep From Losing Their Culture
  10. ^ Ethnic identity, language shift and The Amazigh voice in Morocco and AlgeriaPDF (109 KB), pp. 12-13}}
  11. ^ Michael Peyron’s working papers : Part IVPDF, p. 14.
  12. ^ Chaker (2004:1)
  13. ^ The Tamazight Language Profile III.9 Dialectic variation
  14. ^ Kossmann & Stroomer (1997:1)
  15. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:xiii)
  16. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971a:ix)
  17. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:118)
  18. ^ Chaker (2004:2)
  19. ^ THE LANGUAGE SITUATION IN MOROCCOPDF, p. 2.
  20. ^ Berber Language Page - 2 NUMBER OF SPEAKERS
  21. ^ El Aissati (1993:5-6)
  22. ^ El Aissati (1993:6)
  23. ^ van Heelsum (2002:9)
  24. ^ El Aissati (1993:8)
  25. ^ El Aissati (1993:8,10)
  26. ^ a b El Aissati (1993:7)
  27. ^ Hoffman (2006:148)
  28. ^ El Aissati (1993:11-12)
  29. ^ van Heelsum (2002:9)
  30. ^ Berber Language Page - 3 DIALECT SURVEY
  31. ^ Michael Peyron’s working papers : Part IVPDF, p. 14.
  32. ^ van Heelsum (2002:9)
  33. ^ York (2009)
  34. ^ Amazigh from oblivion to the classroom
  35. ^ Dahir no. 1-01-299, of October 17, 2001 (29 rajab al khaïr 1422) Establishing the Creation of the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture
  36. ^ a b c d e f g h Which Script for Tamazight, Whose Choice is it ?
  37. ^ (French) - « Loi n° 02-03 portent révision constitutionnelle », adopted on April 10, 2002, allotting in particular to "Tamazight" the status of national language
  38. ^ a b The Academy is to coordinate teaching of and research into Tamazight
  39. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971a:viii)
  40. ^ Agraw.com - Amazigh writing system adaptable to the modern age
  41. ^ Tifinagh alphabet and Berber languages on Omniglot
  42. ^ a b Ethnic identity, language shift and The Amazigh voice in Morocco and AlgeriaPDF (109 KB), pp. 12-13}}
  43. ^ Berber Language Page - 5 ORTHOGRAPHIC STATUS
  44. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:19-20)
  45. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:4, 6, 19-20)
  46. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:5)
  47. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:5)
  48. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:11)
  49. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:13-15, 20)
  50. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:15)
  51. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:15)
  52. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:15-17)
  53. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:17-18)
  54. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:88-89)
  55. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:97)
  56. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:112)
  57. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:93-94)
  58. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:95-96)
  59. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:121-123)
  60. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:119-121)
  61. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:119-121)
  62. ^ a b (French)LA SYNTAXE DE LA LANGUE BERBERE
  63. ^ The Amazigh VoicePDF, p. 10.
  64. ^ WALS - Beber (Middle Atlas)
  65. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:35-40, 46, 77-80)
  66. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:69, 81)
  67. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:159, 217)
  68. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:154-159, 216-217)
  69. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:161-166, 218-219)
  70. ^ Contact-induced grammatical change: towards an explicit accountPDF (389 KB), p. 2.
  71. ^ JESPERSEN’S CYCLE IN ARABIC AND BERBERPDF, p. 1.
  72. ^ Vowel apophony and underlying segments in Siwa Berber (Egypt)PDF (33.5 KB)
  73. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971a:298)
  74. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:124-125)
  75. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:125)
  76. ^ The Typology of Number Borrowing in BerberPDF (228 KB), p. 240.
    The Typology of Number Borrowing in Berber (slideshow)PDF (255 KB)
  77. ^ C.f. Abdel-Massih (1971b:23-25, 27)
  78. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971b:295)
  79. ^ The typology of multiple wh-questions and language variationPDF (155 KB), p. 172.
  80. ^ Stoyanova (2008:105)
  81. ^ Stoyanova (2008:105)
  82. ^ THE SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCT AND INDEPENDENT ORDERS IN WAMPANOAGPDF (504 KB), p. 19.
  83. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971a:41-42)
  84. ^ Abdel-Massih (1971a:205)
  85. ^ UDHR - Tamazight, Central Atlas (Tifinagh)
  86. ^ UDHR - Tamazight, Central Atlas

[edit] Bibliography

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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