Healthcare in India

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Health Care in India has can be traced back nearly 3500 years. From the early days of Indian history the Aryurvedic tradition of medicine has been practiced. During the rule of Emperor Ashoka Maurya (third century B.C.E.), schools of learning in the healing arts were created. Many valuable herbs and medicinal combinations were created. Even today many of these continue to be used. During his rein there is speculation that it was attempted for the state to provide health care to all of it's citizens.

Healthcare in India is the responsibility of constituent states and territories of India. The Constitution charges every state with "raising of the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health as among its primary duties". The National Health Policy was endorsed by the Parliament of India in 1983 and updated in 2002.^[1]

Although India has eradicated mass famines, half of children in India are underweight, one of the highest rates in the world and nearly double the rate of Sub-Saharan Africa. Water supply and sanitation in India continue to be abysmal; only one of three Indians has access to improved sanitation facilities such as toilet. India's HIV/AIDS epidemic is a growing threat. Cholera epidemics are not unknown. The maternal mortality in India is the second highest in the world.

Providing healthcare and disease prevention to India’s growing population of more than a billion people becomes challenging in the face of depleting resources. 2.47 million people in India are estimated to be HIV positive. India is one of the four countries worldwide where polio has not as yet been successfully eradicated and one third of the world’s tuberculosis cases are in India ^[2].

According to the World Health Organization 900,000 Indians die each year from drinking contaminated water and breathing in polluted air ^[3]. As India grapples with these basic issues, new challenges are emerging for example there is a rise in chronic adult diseases such as cardiovascular illnesses and diabetes as a consequence of changing lifestyles ^[4].

There are vast disparities in people’s health even among the different states across the country largely attributed to the resource allocation by the state governments where some states have been more successful than others. Better efforts are needed by the local governments to ensure that the health services provided are actually reaching the poor in worst-affected areas.

Contents 1 Medical professionals 2 Diseases 3 Issues 3.1 Malnutrition 3.2 Women 3.3 Water and sanitation 4 Healthcare Infrastructure 5 Central government role 6 Expenditure 7 Healthcare in urban India 8 Primary services 9 Health Insurance 10 Medical Tourism 11 Rate of growth 12 References 13 External links 14 See also

Medical professionals

In a 2005 World Bank study, World Bank reported that "a detailed survey of the knowledge of medical practitioners for treating five common conditions in Delhi found that the average doctor in a public primary health center has around a 50-50 chance of recommending a harmful treatment".

Random visits by government inspectors showed that 40% of public sector medical workers were not found at the workplace.^[5]

Diseases

Malaria is endemic in India.^[6]

On going government of India education about HIV has led to decreases in the spread of HIV in recent years. The number of people living with AIDS in India is estimated to be between 2 and 3 million. The country has had a sharp decrease in the estimated number of HIV infections; 2005 reports had claimed that there were 5.2 million to 5.7 million people afflicted with the virus. The new figures are supported by the World Health Organization and UNAIDS. ^[7][8].

Issues

Malnutrition

Half of children in India are underweight, one of the highest rates in the world and nearly double the rate of Sub-Saharan Africa.^[9] India contributes to about 5.6 million child deaths every year, more than half the world's total.^[10]

Women

Most Indian women are malnourished. The average female life expectancy today in India is low compared to many countries, but it has shown gradual improvement over the years. In many families, especially rural ones, the girls and women face nutritional discrimination within the family, and are anemic and malnourished.^[11]

The maternal mortality in India is the second highest in the world.^[12] Only 42% of births in the country are supervised by health professionals. Most women deliver with help from women in the family who often lack the skills and resources to save the mother's life if it is in danger.^[11] According to UNDP Human Development Report (1997), 88% of pregnant women (age 15-49) were found to be suffering from anemia.^[13]

The average Indian woman has little control over her own fertility and reproductive health.^[11] Women, particularly women in rural areas, do not have access to safe and self-controlled methods of contraception. The public health system emphasises permanent methods like sterilisation, or long-term methods like IUDs that do not need follow-up. Sterilization accounts for more than 75% of total contraception, with female sterilisation accounting for almost 95% of all sterilisations^[11]

Water and sanitation

Water supply and sanitation in India continue to be abysmal, despite longstanding efforts by the various levels of government and communities at improving coverage. The situation is particularly inadequate for sanitation, since only one of three Indians has access to improved sanitation facilities (including improved latrines). While the share of those with access to an improved water source is much higher than for sanitation (86%), the quality of service is poor and most users that are counted as having access receive water of dubious quality and only on an intermittent basis. As of 2003, it was estimated that only 30% of India's wastewater was being treated, with the remainder flowing into rivers or groundwater.^[14] The lack of toilet facilities in many areas also presents a major health risk; open defecation is widespread even in urban areas of India,^[15][16] and it was estimated in 2002 by the World Health Organisation that around 700,000 Indians die each year from diarrhoea.^[14] No city in India has full-day water supply. Most cities supply water only a few hours a day.^[17] In towns and rural areas the situation is even worse.

Healthcare Infrastructure

The Indian healthcare industry is seen to be growing at a rapid pace and is expected to become a US$280 billion industry by 2022 ^[18]. The Indian healthcare market is currently estimated at US$35 billion and is expected to reach over US$75 billion by 2012 and US$150 billion by 2017 ^[19]. According to the Investment Commission of India the healthcare sector has experienced phenomenal growth of 12 percent per annum in the last 4 years ^[20]. Rising income levels and a growing elderly population are all factors that are driving this growth.In addition, changing demographics, disease profiles and the shift from chronic to lifestyle diseases in the country has led to increased spending on healthcare delivery ^[21].

Even so, the vast majority of the country suffers from a poor standard of healthcare infrastructure which has not kept up with the growing economy. Despite having centers of excellence in healthcare delivery, these facilities are limited and are inadequate in meeting the current healthcare demands. Most public health facilities lack efficiency, are understaffed and have poorly maintained or outdated medical equipment.

Approximately one million people, mostly women and children, die in India each year due to inadequate healthcare. 700 million people have no access to specialist care and 80% of specialists live in urban areas ^[22].In addition to poor infrastructure India faces a shortage of trained medical personal especially in rural areas where access to care is altogether limited.

In order to meet manpower shortages and reach world standards India would require investments of up to $20 billion over the next 5 years ^[23]. Forty percent of the primary health centers in India are understaffed. According to WHO statistics there are over 250 medical colleges in the modern system of medicine and over 400 in the Indian system of medicine and homeopathy (ISM&H). India produces over 25000 doctors annually in the modern system of medicine and a similar number of ISM&H practitioners, nurses and para professionals ^[24]. Better policy regulations and the establishment of public private partnerships are possible solutions to the problem of manpower shortage.

India faces a huge need gap in terms of availability of number of hospital beds per 1000 population. With a world average of 3.96 hospital beds per 1000 population India stands just a little over 0.7 hospital beds per 1000 population.^[25]. Moreover, India faces a shortage of doctors, nurses and paramedics that are needed to propel the growing healthcare industry. India is now looking at establishing academic medical centers (AMCs) for the delivery of higher quality care with leading examples of The Manipal Group & All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) already in place.

As incomes rise and the number of available financing options in terms of health insurance policies increase, consumers become more and more engaged in making informed decisions about their health and are well aware of the costs associated with those decisions. In order to remain competitive, healthcare providers are now not only looking at improving operational efficiency but are also looking at ways of enhancing patient experience overall.^[26]

Central government role

Critics say that the national policy lacks specific measures to achieve broad stated goals. Particular problems include the failure to integrate health services with wider economic and social development, the lack of nutritional support and sanitation, and the poor participatory involvement at the local level.

Central government efforts at influencing public health have focused on the five-year plans, on coordinated planning with the states, and on sponsoring major health programs. Government expenditures are jointly shared by the central and state governments. Goals and strategies are set through central-state government consultations of the Central Council of Health and Family Welfare. Central government efforts are administered by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, which provides both administrative and technical services and manages medical education. States provide public services and health education.

The 1983 National Health Policy is committed to providing health services to all by 2000. In 1983 health care expenditures varied greatly among the states and union territories, from Rs 13 per capita in Bihar to Rs 60 per capita in Himachal Pradesh, and Indian per capita expenditure was low when compared with other Asian countries outside of South Asia. Although government health care spending progressively grew throughout the 1980s, such spending as a percentage of the gross national product (GNP) remained fairly constant. In the meantime, health care spending as a share of total government spending decreased. During the same period, private-sector spending on health care was about 1.5 times as much as government spending.

Expenditure

In the mid-1990s, health spending amounted to 6% of GDP, one of the highest levels among developing nations. The established per capita spending is around Rs 32000 per year with the major input from private households (75%). State governments contribute 15.2%, the central government 5.2%, third-party insurance and employers 3.3%, and municipal government and foreign donors about 1.3, according to a 1995 World Bank study. Of these proportions, 58.7% goes toward primary health care (curative, preventive, and promotive) and 38.8% is spent on secondary and tertiary inpatient care. The rest goes for nonservice costs.

The fifth and sixth five-year plans (FY 1974-78 and FY 1980-84, respectively) included programs to assist delivery of preventive medicine and improve the health status of the rural population. Supplemental nutrition programs and increasing the supply of safe drinking water were high priorities. The sixth plan aimed at training more community health workers and increasing efforts to control communicable diseases. There were also efforts to improve regional imbalances in the distribution of health care resources.

The Seventh Five-Year Plan (FY 1985-89) budgeted Rs 33.9 billion for health, an amount roughly double the outlay of the sixth plan. Health spending as a portion of total plan outlays, however, had declined over the years since the first plan in 1951, from a high of 3.3% of the total plan spending in FY 1951-55 to 1.9% of the total for the seventh plan. Mid-way through the Eighth Five-Year Plan (FY 1992-96), however, health and family welfare was budgeted at Rs 20 billion, or 4.3% of the total plan spending for FY 1994, with an additional Rs 3.6 billion in the nonplan budget.

Healthcare in urban India

Behaviors between middle- and upper-class citizens from the four largest metros in India - Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata, and Mumbai - appear to vary widely. In general, those in Chennai appear to be more “westernized” in their attitude towards medical treatment, i.e. they are least likely to cite a chemist/pharmacist or the Internet as the source most frequently used to obtain health-related information, and are most likely to cite allopathy while least likely to cite homeopathy as their preferred system of medical treatment. Those in Kolkata appear to have a strong relationship with their healthcare provider but are generally more traditional in their attitudes towards medical treatment. Those in Delhi are most likely to have a positive view of medical care in India but also tend to be more traditional in their attitudes towards medical treatment. Finally, those in Mumbai are most likely to have a negative view on healthcare in India and also appear to have a weak relationship with their healthcare providers^[27].

Primary services

Health care facilities and personnel increased substantially between the early 1950s and early 1980s, but because of fast population growth, the number of licensed medical practitioners per 10,000 individuals had fallen by the late 1980s to three per 10,000 from the 1981 level of four per 10,000. In 1991 there were approximately ten hospital beds per 10,000 individuals. However for comparison, the in China for comparison there are 1.4 doctors per 1000 people.

Primary health centers are the cornerstone of the rural health care system. By 1991, India had about 22,400 primary health centers, 11,200 hospitals, and 27,400 clinics. These facilities are part of a tiered health care system that funnels more difficult cases into urban hospitals while attempting to provide routine medical care to the vast majority in the countryside. Primary health centers and subcenters rely on trained paramedics to meet most of their needs. The main problems affecting the success of primary health centers are the predominance of clinical and curative concerns over the intended emphasis on preventive work and the reluctance of staff to work in rural areas. In addition, the integration of health services with family planning programs often causes the local population to perceive the primary health centers as hostile to their traditional preference for large families. Therefore, primary health centers often play an adversarial role in local efforts to implement national health policies.

According to data provided in 1989 by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, the total number of civilian hospitals for all states and union territories combined was 10,157. In 1991 there was a total of 811,000 hospital and health care facilities beds. The geographical distribution of hospitals varied according to local socio-economic conditions. In India's most populous state, Uttar Pradesh, with a 1991 population of more than 139 million, there were 735 hospitals as of 1990. In Kerala, with a 1991 population of 29 million occupying an area only one-seventh the size of Uttar Pradesh, there were 2,053 hospitals.

Although central government has set a goal of health care for all by 2000, hospitals are distributed unevenly. Private studies of India's total number of hospitals in the early 1990s were more conservative than official Indian data, estimating that in 1992 there were 7,300 hospitals. Of this total, nearly 4,000 were owned and managed by central, state, or local governments. Another 2,000, owned and managed by charitable trusts, received partial support from the government, and the remaining 1,300 hospitals, many of which were relatively small facilities, were owned and managed by the private sector. The use of state-of-the-art medical equipment, often imported from Western countries, was primarily limited to urban centers in the early 1990s. A network of regional cancer diagnostic and treatment facilities was being established in the early 1990s in major hospitals that were part of government medical colleges. By 1992 twenty-two such centers were in operation. Most of the 1,300 private hospitals lacked sophisticated medical facilities, although in 1992 approximately 12% possessed state-of-the-art equipment for diagnosis and treatment of all major diseases, including cancer. The fast pace of development of the private medical sector and the burgeoning middle class in the 1990s have led to the emergence of the new concept in India of establishing hospitals and health care facilities on a for-profit basis.

By the late 1980s, there were approximately 128 medical colleges - roughly three times more than in 1950. These medical colleges in 1987 accepted a combined annual class of 14,166 students. Data for 1987 show that there were 320,000 registered medical practitioners and 219,300 registered nurses. Various studies have shown that in both urban and rural areas people preferred to pay and seek the more sophisticated services provided by private physicians rather than use free treatment at public health centers.

Indigenous or traditional medical practitioners continue to practice throughout the country. The two main forms of traditional medicine practised are the ayurvedic system, which deals with mental and spiritual as well as physical well-being, and the unani (or Galenic) herbal medical practice. A vaidya is a practitioner of the ayurvedic tradition, and a hakim (Arabic for a Muslim physician) is a practitioner of the unani tradition. These professions are frequently hereditary. A variety of institutions offer training in indigenous medical practice. Only in the late 1970s did official health policy refer to any form of integration between Western-oriented medical personnel and indigenous medical practitioners. In the early 1990s, there were ninety-eight ayurvedic colleges and seventeen unani colleges operating in both the governmental and non-governmental sectors.

Health Insurance

The majority of the Indian population is unable to access high quality healthcare provided by private players as a result of high costs. Many are now looking towards insurance companies for providing alternative financing options so that they too may seek better quality healthcare. The opportunity remains huge for insurance providers entering into the Indian healthcare market since75% of expenditure on healthcare in India is still being met by ‘out-of-pocket’ consumers ^[28].Even though only 10% of the Indian population today has health insurance coverage, this industry is expected to face tremendous growth over the next few years as a result of several private players that have entered into the market. Health insurance coverage among urban, middle- and upper-class Indians, however, is significantly higher and stands at approximately 50% ^[29].

The Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA) is the governing body responsible for promoting insurance business and introducing insurance regulations in India ^[30]. The share of public sector companies in health insurance premiums was 76% and that of private sector companies was 24% for the period 2005-06. Health insurance premiums collected over 2005-06 registered a growth of 35% over the previous year ^[31]. In 2001 the IRDA introduced provisions for Third Party Administrators (TPAs) to support the administration and management of health insurance products offered by insurance companies. TPAs are facilitators in the coordination process between the health insurance provider and the hospital. Currently there are 27 TPAs registered under the IRDA ^[32].

Health insurance has a way of increasing accessibility to quality healthcare delivery especially for private healthcare providers for whom high cost remains a barrier. In order to encourage foreign health insurers to enter the Indian market the government has recently proposed to raise the foreign direct investment (FDI) limit in insurance from 26% to 49% ^[33]. Increasing health insurance penetration and ensuring affordable premium rates are necessary to drive the health insurance market in India.

Medical Tourism

India is quickly becoming a hub for medical tourists seeking quality healthcare at an affordable cost.

Rate of growth

India has approximately 600,000 allopathic doctors registered to practice medicine. This number however, is higher than the actual number practicing because it includes doctors who have emigrated to other countries as well as doctors who have died. India licenses 18,000 new doctors a year.^[34].

References

•  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies.

External links

• Washington Post correspondent Amar Bakshi explores why clinical research in India outpaces the U.S.
• Healthcare in India Presentation
• Ayurvedic Colleges in India
• HRC/Eldis Health Resource Guide - new research and other resources on health in developing countries
• [1]
• [2]
• [3]

See also

• HIV/AIDS in India
• Environment in India
• Poverty in India

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