Somali people

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Somalis
(Soomaaliyeed)
الصوماليون

(left to right): Muhammad Abdullah Hassan, Fatima Jibrell, Said Sheikh Samatar, Asli Hassan Abade, Iman, Hadrawi, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar, Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, Sultan Mohamoud Ali Shire, Khadija Qalanjo, Nuruddin Farah, Osman Yusuf Kenadid
Total population
15-17 Million
Regions with significant populations
Horn of Africa, Middle East
Somalia 9.1 million [1]  Ethiopia 4.6 million [2]  Yemen 858,000 [citation needed]  Kenya 481,000 [citation needed]  Djibouti 350,000 [citation needed]  Saudi Arabia 50,000 [citation needed]  Great Britain 43,515 [3]  Canada 37,785 [4]  United States 35,760 [5]  United Arab Emirates 30,000  Sweden 21,597 [6]  Norway 19,656 [7]  Netherlands 19,549 [8]  Denmark 16,550 [9]  Finland 9,810 [10]  Italy 6,414 [11]
Languages
Somali, Arabic
Religion
Sunni Islam
Related ethnic groups
Afar, Agaw, Amhara, Beja, Bilen, Jeberti, Oromo, Saho, Tigray, Tigre

Somalis (Somali: Soomaaliyeed, Arabic: الصوماليون‎) are an ethnic group located in the Horn of Africa, also known as the Somali Peninsula. The overwhelming majority of Somalis speak the Somali language, which is part of the Cushitic subgroup of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Ethnic Somalis number around 15-17 million and are principally concentrated in Somalia (more than 9 million^[1]), Ethiopia (4.6 million^[2]), Yemen (a little under 1 million), northeastern Kenya (about half a million), Djibouti (350,000), and an unknown but large number live in parts of the Middle East, North America and Europe.

Contents 1 History 2 Pan Somalism 3 Genetics 3.1 Y DNA 3.2 mtDNA 4 Geographic distribution 4.1 Somali diaspora 5 Clan and family structure 6 Authors and musicians 7 Somalywood 8 Islam 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

[edit] History

Somalia has experienced a turbulent past and as such, the history of the Somalis is fraught with a great deal of speculation. Numerous sources place Arabia as the original homeland of the Somali people.^[12][13] Others suggest a more indigenous provenance that some say can be traced all the way back to the 1st millennium BCE. The ancient ancestors of the Somali people, proponents of this theory propose, split off from an early Cushitic-speaking group in the highlands of Ethiopia, and are referred to as the Sam.^[14] The Sam themselves are said to be a sub-type of the Omo-Tana and are believed to have transitioned first into the Somaal and later the Somali people. The Somali people are then said to have moved into the Zeila region by at least 100 BCE and then expanded into all of what is modern-day Somalia.^{[citation needed]}

The history of commercial and intellectual contact between the inhabitants of the Somali coast and the Arabian Peninsula may help explain the Somali people's connection with the Prophet Muhammad. Early on, a band of persecuted Muslims had, at the Prophet's urging, fled across the Red Sea into the Horn of Africa. There, the Muslims were granted protection by the Ethiopian negus (king). Islam may thus have been introduced into the Horn of Africa well before the faith even took root in its place of origin.^[15] However, it was not until the coming of traders from the Arabian Peninsula in the 10th century that Islam would significantly shape much of modern Somali culture. According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, merchant communities in northern Somalia that had already been present by the 1st century were trading frankincense and other items with the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula as well as with then Roman-controlled Egypt through such ports as Zeila and Berbera.^[16] This trade and interaction significantly affected Somali society, as the vast majority converted to Islam. Due to the Somalis' adoption of Islam and the aggressiveness of Ethiopia's rulers, conflict with the neighboring Ethiopian Christians led to numerous wars from the 13th to the 16th centuries.^[17] After the Somali Ajuuraan Dynasty collapsed in the 18th century, Omani rule spawned a trade network spanning much of the Arabian Sea from Zanzibar to Arabia, thus making Somalia an important center of early trade. In spite of Arab rule along the coast, the Somali clans of the interior exercised almost total independence and often raided the coastal settlements until the Arabs began to withdraw by the 19th century. Egypt and Britain both attempted to colonize Somalia, with the British eventually succeeding in forming a protectorate over northern Somalia, which they called British Somaliland. After much fighting and bloodshed, Italy later managed to claim the southern portions of Somalia, which they in turn dubbed Italian Somaliland. France ended up colonizing the northern-most Somali region, which is now Djibouti.

Following a few decades of British and Italian rule, Somalia gained its independence in 1960, with Djibouti following suit in 1977. Other Somali-inhabited areas of the Horn of Africa are currently administered by neighboring countries such as the Somali Region in Ethiopia and the North Eastern Province (NFD) in Kenya. In 1977, the Ogaden War broke out after the government of Siad Barre sought to unite the various Somali-inhabited territories of the region into a Greater Somalia (Soomaaliweyn).

[edit] Pan Somalism

Somali people in the Horn of Africa are divided among different countries (Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, and northeastern Kenya) that were artificially and some might say arbitrarily partitioned by the former colonial powers. Pan Somalism is an ideology that advocates the unification of all ethnic Somalis under one flag and one nation. The Siad Barre regime actively promoted Pan Somalism, which eventually led to the Ogaden War between Somalia and Ethiopia.

[edit] Genetics

Genetic genealogy, although a new tool that uses the genes of modern populations to trace their ethnic and geographic origins, has also helped pinpoint the possible background of the modern Somalis.

[edit] Y DNA

According to one prominent study on Y chromosomes published in the European Journal of Human Genetics, the Somalis are closely related to certain Ethiopian and Eritrean groups:

"The data suggest that the male Somali population is a branch of the East African population − closely related to the Oromos in Ethiopia and North Kenya − with predominant E3b1 cluster lineages that were introduced into the Somali population 4000−5000 years ago, and that the Somali male population has approximately 15% Y chromosomes from Eurasia and approximately 5% from sub-Saharan Africa."^[18]

Besides comprising the majority of the Y DNA in Somalis, the E1b1b (formerly E3b) genetic haplogroup also makes up the bulk of the paternal DNA of Ethiopians, Eritreans, Berbers, North African Arabs, as well as many Mediterranean and Balkan Europeans.^[19] The M78 subclade of E1b1b is found in about 77% of Somali males which may represent the traces of an ancient migration into the Horn of Africa from the upper Egypt area.^[18] After haplogroup E1b1b, the second most frequently occurring Y DNA haplogroup among Somalis is the Eurasian haplogroup T (M70),^[20] which is found in slightly more than 10% of Somali males. Haplogroup T, like haplogroup E1b1b, is also typically found among populations of Northeast Africa, North Africa, Southwest Asia, and the Mediterranean.

Carleton S. Coon, a 20th century craniofacial anthropometrist, used the technique for his The Origin of Races (New York: Knopf, 1962). Because of the inconsistencies in the old three-part system (Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid), Coon adopted a five-part scheme. He discarded the term "Negroid" as useless or misleading since it implied a dark skin-tone, which is found at low latitudes around the globe and is a product of adaptation. As shown in the map, he defined "Caucasoid" as a pattern of skull measurements and other phenotypical characteristics typical of populations in Europe, Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia, North Africa, and Northeast Africa (Ethiopia, and Somalia). He defined skulls typical of sub-Saharan Africa as "Congoid" and those of Southern Africa as "Capoid." Finally, he split "Australoid" from "Mongoloid" along a line roughly similar to the modern distinction between sinodonts in the north and sundadonts in the south. He argued that these races had developed independently of each other over the past half-million years, developing into Homo Sapiens at different periods of time, resulting in different levels of civilization. This raised considerable controversy and led the American Anthropological Association to reject his approach (although without mentioning him by name).

[edit] mtDNA

According to a recent mtDNA study, a large proportion of the maternal ancestry of Somalis consists of the M1 haplogroup, which is common among Ethiopians, Egyptians, Libyans and Berbers. M1 is believed to have originated in Asia,^[21] where its parent M clade represents the majority of mtDNA lineages^[22] (particularly in India).^[23] This haplogroup is also thought to possibly correlate with the Afro-Asiatic language family:^[24]

"We analysed mtDNA variation in ~250 persons from Libya, Somalia, and Congo/Zambia, as representatives of the three regions of interest. Our initial results indicate a sharp cline in M1 frequencies that generally does not extend into sub-Saharan Africa. While our North and especially East African samples contained frequencies of M1 over 20%, our sub-Saharan samples consisted almost entirely of the L1 or L2 haplogroups only. In addition, there existed a significant amount of homogeneity within the M1 haplogroup. This sharp cline indicates a history of little admixture between these regions. This could imply a more recent ancestry for M1 in Africa, as older lineages are more diverse and widespread by nature, and may be an indication of a back-migration into Africa from the Middle East."^[24]

Another mtDNA study indicates that:

"Somali, as a representative East African population, seem to have experienced a detectable amount of Caucasoid maternal influence... the proportion m of Caucasoid lineages in the Somali is m = 0.46 [46%]... Our results agree with the hypothesis of a maternal influence of Caucasoid lineages in East Africa, although its contribution seems to be higher than previously reported in mtDNA studies."^[25]

Overall, the genetic studies conclude that Somalis and their fellow Ethiopian and Eritrean Northeast African groups represent a unique and distinct racial bloc on the continent:^[26]

"The most distinct separation is between African and non-African populations. The northeastern-African -- that is, the Ethiopian and Somali -- populations are located centrally between sub-Saharan African and non-African populations... The fact that the Ethiopians and Somalis have a subset of the sub-Saharan African haplotype diversity -- and that the non-African populations have a subset of the diversity present in Ethiopians and Somalis -- makes simple-admixture models less likely; rather, these observations support the hypothesis proposed by other nuclear-genetic studies (Tishkoff et al. 1996a, 1998a, 1998b; Kidd et al. 1998) -- that populations in northeastern Africa may have diverged from those in the rest of sub-Saharan Africa early in the history of modern African populations and that a subset of this northeastern-African population migrated out of Africa and populated the rest of the globe. These conclusions are supported by recent mtDNA analysis (Quintana-Murci et al. 1999)."^[27]

[edit] Geographic distribution

Somalis comprise the majority of Somalia's population at approximately 94% of the total Somalia population. They are traditionally a nomadic ethnic group, but since the late 20th century, many have moved to the cities. While most Somalis can be found in Somalia proper, large numbers also live in Ethiopia, Yemen, Djibouti and the Middle East.

[edit] Somali diaspora

The Somali Civil War led to the Somali diaspora, where most of the best educated Somalis left for Northern Europe, The Middle East, and North America.

In Canada, the cities of Toronto, Ottawa, Calgary, Edmonton, Montreal, Vancouver, Winnipeg and Hamilton all harbor Somali populations. Statistics Canada's 1996 Census ranks the people with a Somali background as the 69th largest ethnic group in Canada.^[28]

While the distribution of Somalis per country in Europe is hard to measure because the Somali community on the continent has grown so quickly in recent years, the official 2001 UK census reported 43,515 Somalis living in the United Kingdom.^[3] Somalis in Britain are largely concentrated in the cities of London, Sheffield, Birmingham, Cardiff, Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, and Leicester, with London alone accounting for roughly 78% of Britain's Somali population.^[3] There are also significant Somali communities in Norway: 19,656 (2007)^[7]; the Netherlands: 19,549 (2008)^[8]; and Denmark: 16,550 (2008).^[9]

In the United States of America, Minneapolis, Saint Paul, Columbus, San Diego, Seattle, Washington, D.C., Atlanta, Los Angeles, Portland, Denver, Nashville, Lewiston, Portland, Maine and Cedar Rapids have the largest Somali populations.

Between 1992 and 2005, 64,439 persons born in Somalia were admitted to the United States as refugees. Unlike the European figures, however, this statistic does not include US-born children. (Source: United States Citizenship and Immigration Services)^{[citation needed]}

An estimated 20,000 Somali immigrants ended up in the US State of Minnesota some ten years ago. Now the Twin Cities has the highest population of Somalis in North America.^[29] The city of Minneapolis hosts hundreds of Somali-owned and operated businesses. Colorful stalls inside several malls offer everything from Halal meat, to stylish leather shoes, to the latest fashion for men and women, gold jewelry, money transfer or Xawaala offices, banners advertising the latest Somali movie, video stores fully stocked with nostalgic love songs not found in the mainstream supermarkets, groceries, and boutiques. ^[30] Refugees have surged into the Cedar-Riverside area (in particular, Riverside Plaza) of Minneapolis.

Somalis now comprise one of the largest immigrant communities in the United Arab Emirates. Somali-owned businesses line the streets of the Dubai city centre, Deira; internet cafes, hotels, coffee shops, restaurant and import-export businesses are a testimony to the Somalis' entrepreneurial spirit. Star African Air is one of three Somali-owned airlines which have headquarters in Dubai rather than in Somalia.^[31]

[edit] Clan and family structure

Somalis are split up into many clans and sub-clans, including but not limited to the following major clans:

• Darod
• Dir
• Hawiye
• Isaaq
• Rahanweyn (Digil and Mirifle)

Genealogical claims are an important part of Somali tradition and can appear to outsiders as a form of xenophobic isolation. Loyalty to one's clan is important and in Somalia it often supersedes any central government authority.

Somali nationalism often relates to ancestral claims of a Biblical and Qur'anic nature since most Somalis purport to have been descended from Near Eastern religious figures and peoples. Given recent genetic studies^{[citation needed]}, we now know that there does appear to be some truth to many of these claims.

Although ancestral provenance plays a part in inter-clan rivalry, the majority of conflicts between Somalis stem from the inequitable distribution of political and economic power during Somalia's various political administrations. Politicians would often favor their own clan over those of others, and this would build resentment among members of other clans.

Ironically, clan loyalty has arguably done more than anything else to keep the Somali people a relatively homogeneous and cohesive ethnic and cultural unit despite long-term residence in a culturally and ethnically diverse part of the world:

The time of the eastbound Bantu expansion was estimated to be 3400±1100 years ago. Bantu populations have high frequencies of E3a haplogroups. We have observed only a few individuals with the E3a haplogroup in our Somali population, thus, supporting the view that the Bantu migration did not reach Somalia. It has been suggested that a barrier against gene flow exist in the region. The barrier seems to be the Cushitic languages and cultures to which Somalis belongs. The Cushitic languages belong to the Afro-Asiatic languages that are spoken in Northern and Eastern Africa. The Cushitic languages and cultures are mainly found in the Somalis and the Oromos, one of the two main groups inhabiting Ethiopia. The Somali and Oromo languages have a high degree of similarity and the two populations share many cultural characteristics. The Somali and Oromo people live in clans with special patterns of marriage and the Somali and Oromo people have complex, interwoven pedigrees.^[18]

[edit] Authors and musicians

Most Somali songs are about love. Some recall what life was like in Somalia before the civil war, while others talk about how Somalis should come together and help restore the country to its former glory.

• Rageh Omaar, Somali-British journalist winner of the 2003 EMMA Best TV Reporter Award.
• Mohamed Ibrahim Warsame 'Hadrawi', the leading Somali poet of recent times and a philosopher also dubbed as the Somali Shakespeare.
• K'naan, Somali-Canadian rapper whose songs are often about the civil war in Somalia

[edit] Somalywood

Although nowhere near the level of Hollywood, the Somali film industry, also known as Somalywood, is taking shape and becoming quite popular in the Somali communities of the diaspora and back in Somalia.^{[citation needed]} The Somali directors Mohameddeq Ali (aka Knowledge), AbdiMalik Isak and Abdisalan Aato are at the forefront of this revolution. Somalis are great fans of Bollywood movies and Somali films are usually a mixture of love stories and Hollywood-oriented action.

[edit] Islam

The vast majority of Somalis are Sunni Muslims. Since the collapse of the federal government, numerous religious schools have attempted to fill in the void. Qu'ranic schools (also known as duqsis) remain the basic system of religious instruction in Somalia. They provide Islamic education for children, thereby filling a clear religious and social role in the country. Known as the most stable local, non-formal education providing basic religious and moral instruction, their strength rests on community support and their use of locally-made and widely available teaching materials. The Qu'ranic system, which teaches the greatest number of students relative to other educational sub-sectors, is the only system accessible to Somalis in nomadic as compared to urban areas (the latter of whom have easier access to education). In 1993, the United Nations Children's Fund conducted a study in which it found, among other things, that "unlike in primary schools where gender disparity is enormous, around 40 per cent of Koranic school pupils are girls; but the teaching staff have minimum or no qualification necessary to ensure intellectual development of children."^[32]

In the Somali diaspora, multiple Islamic fundraising events are held every year in cities like Toronto and Minneapolis, where Somali scholars and professionals give lectures and answer questions from the audience. The purpose of these events is usually to raise money for new schools or universities in Somalia, to help Somalis that have suffered as a consequence of floods and/or droughts, or to gather funds for the creation of new mosques like the Abuubakar-As-Saddique Mosque, which is currently undergoing construction in the Twin cities.

[edit] See also

• List of Somalis
• Culture of Somalia
• Demographics of Somalia

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Ethnologue population estimates for Somali speakers
• [1]
• Origin of the Somali People
• US Library of Congress Country Study of Somalia
• High frequencies of Y chromosome lineages characterized by E3b1, DYS19-11, DYS392-12 in Somali males - European Journal of Human Genetics
• Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease - Genome Biology
• Somali Immigrant Aid Organization in Canada